3. What does the Bible say about sin? Is original sin biblical?

Introduction

What stops humans from being conformed fully to the image of Christ?

One thing: our sin.

A biblical understanding of sin is vital for understanding who Jesus is, what his victory over sin means for humanity, and how Christians can truly become like Christ.

What does the Bible say about sin? Many Christians believe that all people are corrupted by Adam’s sin simply by virtue of being born human, and therefore inherit a sinful, corrupt nature ultimately from Adam. This is called “original sin.” Christian traditions define the doctrine differently, but influential Western formulations in Augustine, Calvin, and later confessions connect Adam’s fall with an inherited condition affecting his descendants (Augustine, 1887; Calvin, 1845, II.1; Westminster Assembly, 1646, ch. VI; Catholic Church, 1997, §§403–406). But does Scripture require this conclusion? If human beings inherit a condition that makes sin morally unavoidable, how should we understand God's justice in holding them accountable? And how does that teaching relate to Scripture's continued affirmation that humanity is created in God's image?

Before considering specific Scriptures concerning sin, it is also important to understand what the Bible says about how humans are created in God’s image. This will provide the foundation for considering human sin.

For while all humans have sinned, they are nevertheless created in the image of God, fearfully and wonderfully made (Psalm 139:13-15). Humans have the capacity for great good as well as evil. Throughout the Bible, God expects people to choose what is right and holds us accountable when we do not. He would not expect something we are not capable of. People, including non-Christians, can and do choose the good. David emphasizes this:

“For you created my inmost being; you knit me together in my mother’s womb. 14 I praise you because I am fearfully and wonderfully made; your works are wonderful, I know that full well. 15 My frame was not hidden from you when I was made in the secret place, when I was woven together in the depths of the earth.” (Psalm 139:13-15)

Therefore, Adam and Eve, and every person following the Fall has been created in God’s image, fearfully and wonderfully made, with the capacity to choose good - or evil. These foundational truths are necessary for having an accurate theology of human sin.

What does the Bible say about sin?

Consider the following Scriptures:

1) Romans 5:12 “Sin came into the world through one man, and death through sin, and so death spread to all men because all sinned.”

Romans 5:12 connects the entrance of sin and death into the world with Adam's transgression, while also saying that death spread to all because all sinned. I believe Paul emphasizes both the far-reaching consequences of Adam's act and humanity's universal sinfulness. The verse does not, by itself, establish that every person inherits Adam's personal guilt or a moral inability to choose good. I believe human beings remain created in God's image and accountable for their own choices.

2) 1 Kings 8:46, “They sin against thee, (for there is no man that sinneth not,) and thou be angry with them, and deliver them to the enemy, so that they carry them away captives unto the land of the enemy, far or near…”

This verse establishes that human sin is universal, but it does not explicitly explain whether sinful tendencies are inherited from birth. I believe Scripture consistently holds people responsible for their choices, even while recognizing their need for God's mercy and help. Human beings are created in God's image and must grow in wisdom and obedience, much as children grow toward maturity. God knew Adam and Eve would fall, and I believe He has a plan for their full restoration and redemption.

3) Romans 3:23, “…for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God.”

According to this verse, all people have sinned and fall short of the glory of God. This establishes humanity's universal sinfulness, but it does not, by itself, establish that sin is morally unavoidable because of an inherited nature. I believe all people have made sinful choices, while remaining responsible before God for how they respond to good and evil.

4) Psalm 58:3 “The wicked are estranged from the womb; they go astray from birth.”

Why do the wicked go astray from birth? Psalm 58:3 speaks specifically of “the wicked,” not of every human being without distinction. More importantly, it says they go astray. Going astray describes movement away from what is right; it does not say God created them morally corrupt. The verse uses strong poetic language to describe how early wickedness can begin and how deeply it can characterize a person’s life. It does not require the conclusion that every human being is born with an inherited sinful nature. People are not created corrupt; they become corrupt, as will be shown throughout this post.

5) Romans 5:18 “Therefore, as one trespass led to condemnation for all men, so one act of righteousness leads to justification and life for all men.”

Adam’s sin led to condemnation for all humanity. Why? Does this mean that every person inherits Adam’s personal guilt or a sinful nature from birth? I do not believe so. Adam’s disobedience had profound consequences for the human race. Sin and death entered human history, and no one lives in a vacuum untouched by the consequences of previous generations’ actions (Romans 5:12–19). However, inheriting the consequences of Adam’s sin is not the same as inheriting personal guilt for his sin.

Paul draws a powerful contrast between Adam and Christ. Just as Adam’s disobedience brought devastating consequences for humanity, Christ’s obedience and saving work bring justification and life. I believe that, through Christ, all humanity will ultimately be justified and given life. Everyone has been affected by the Fall, but Scripture also repeatedly holds people accountable for their own choices. Adam’s sin does not, in my understanding, make his descendants morally incapable of choosing good. Every person is created in God’s image, with genuine moral agency and the ability to choose good or evil, even while deeply needing God’s grace.

6) 1 Corinthians 15:22 “For as in Adam all die, so also in Christ shall all be made alive.”

These verses show that Adam's and Christ's actions profoundly affect the human race. Adam's disobedience brought devastating consequences into human history. Christ, in contrast, obeyed God and made a way for all to be made alive. Paul deliberately places Adam and Christ in contrast: one man's disobedience is associated with death, while one man's obedience is associated with life. I do not believe this requires us to conclude that Adam's personal guilt or an unavoidable sinful nature is inherited by every descendant. Although Adam's transgression affected all humanity, each person remains morally responsible for their own wrongdoing.

Romans 5:12 is helpful to repeat here: “Sin came into the world through one man, and death through sin, and so death spread to all men because all sinned.” Adam's sin had consequences for the entire human race, including mortality. This is distinct from saying that each person bears personal guilt for Adam's act. Paul also affirms that all have sinned, and I believe his words must be considered alongside Scripture's emphasis on individual responsibility.

7) Romans 3:10-12 10 “As it is written: ‘None is righteous, no, not one; 11 no one understands; no one seeks for God. 12 All have turned aside; together they have become worthless; no one does good, not even one.’”

Something to think about: in Mark 10:18, Jesus says, “Why do you call me good? No one is good except God alone.” Romans 3:10-12 likewise emphasizes humanity’s universal failure to attain God’s righteousness. Jesus was genuinely human, learned obedience, overcame sin, and was made perfect through obedience to God. Jesus therefore shows that becoming morally perfect is possible for a human being through dependence upon God, obedience, and the power of the Holy Spirit. For my full biblical argument, see my 2 part series on Jesus' own moral development, starting with this article: 13. Jesus’ Moral Development, Part 1: What Does It Mean That He Was “Made Perfect”? The important point here is that Scripture never requires us to define human nature itself as sinful in order to explain humanity’s universal history of sin. Jesus’ human life ultimately demonstrates what God can accomplish in a human being through grace, obedience, and the Holy Spirit. Scripture is also clear that Jesus was glorified after his suffering and death. His story therefore points not to an inherently sinful human nature, but to what God can accomplish in a human being through grace, obedience, and the Holy Spirit.

Regarding the nature of sin, these verses establish that all people have sinned; they do not, by themselves, prove that every person inherits a sinful nature from birth. There is a difference between universal sinful conduct and inherited moral inability. I believe human beings retain genuine moral responsibility for their choices. An account of inherited inability must therefore explain how that inability relates to God's just judgment.

8) Isaiah 64:6, “We have all become like one who is unclean, and all our righteous deeds are like a polluted garment. We all fade like a leaf, and our iniquities, like the wind, take us away.”

Notably, Isaiah says that we have “become” unclean. Psalm 14:3 similarly says, “All have turned away, they have together become corrupt; there is no one who does good, not even one.” I understand this language as highlighting the corrupting effects of turning away from God. These verses do not explicitly say that God creates every human being morally corrupt from birth. I believe humanity's continuing identity as God's image-bearers is important here, as is Scripture's emphasis on personal responsibility. People are accountable for their own sinful choices, even while the sins of previous generations profoundly affect them.

9) Jeremiah 17:9 “The heart is deceitful above all things, and desperately sick; who can understand it?”

Sin can be compared to a sickness that deeply affects the human heart. I believe Jeremiah describes the seriousness of human corruption without establishing that God creates every soul morally corrupt from birth. In my understanding, people become sinful and develop corrupt habits and desires through wrongdoing. The choices of others profoundly affect us, yet I believe God gives us genuine moral agency and calls us to choose what is good.

10) John 3:3 “Jesus answered him, “Truly, truly, I say to you, unless one is born again he cannot see the kingdom of God.”

Humans, all who have “become corrupt” (Psalm 14:3), need to literally be born again before we can see God’s kingdom. We need a new birth and a new life – not a small, band-aid fix. And how are Christians born again? By the power of the Holy Spirit, who gives new birth (John 3:3). This verse shows that while humans do not have the natural inability not to sin, they cannot will not to sin on their own - they need God’s help. They need the Spirit of God. By relying on God and choosing obedience, perhaps humans can become sinless. All things are possible with God.

11) Proverbs 22:15 “Folly is bound up in the heart of a child, but the rod of discipline drives it far from him.”

Folly is not the same thing as sin, although the two can overlap. In Scripture, sin includes wrongdoing against God’s will, but it does not always require deliberate rebellion or full knowledge. The Torah explicitly recognizes sins committed unintentionally and distinguishes them from deliberate, “high-handed” rebellion (Leviticus 4; Numbers 15:27–31). Folly concerns a lack of wisdom, discernment, or sound judgment and can contribute to sin, but not every foolish mistake is necessarily a moral transgression. Likewise, sin can arise through ignorance or error as well as through deliberate disobedience. The two categories overlap, but they are not identical.

This verse is acknowledging what everyone knows: children lack wisdom and need to grow in wisdom. The rod of discipline drives them to become wise. Sin may be involved - or not. Discipline is not always a result of someone sinning. For example, children learn discipline in doing household chores, going to school and working hard, and participating in sports. These disciplines could involve the child sinning, or not. But all these disciplines will involve a child growing in wisdom.

12) Genesis 8:21, “And when the LORD smelled the pleasing aroma, the LORD said in his heart, ‘I will never again curse the ground because of man, for the intention of man’s heart is evil from his youth. Neither will I ever again strike down every living creature as I have done.’”

Genesis 8:21 describes the inclination of the human heart toward evil “from youth.” I do not believe this wording settles whether such inclinations are inherited at birth. The context is a world deeply affected by human wrongdoing, while Noah's story also emphasizes the possibility of righteousness and faithfulness within that world. I believe both realities deserve attention: human beings are profoundly influenced by sin around them, yet Scripture continues to hold them responsible for their choices. Genesis 8:21 describes a serious problem in the human heart, but it does not explicitly trace that problem to the inheritance of Adam's personal guilt or an unavoidable sinful nature.

13) Ecclesiastes 9:3 “…the hearts of the sons of men are full of evil, and insanity is in their hearts throughout their lives.”

Truly, sin is like a sickness that deeply affects the human heart. I understand Ecclesiastes 9:3 as describing humanity's corrupted condition, not as explaining the origin of that condition. In light of Scripture's emphasis on humanity being created in God's image and on people turning away from what is right, I believe corruption develops through human wrongdoing rather than belonging to God's original design for humanity.

14) 1 Corinthians 15:45-49, “Thus it is written, “The first man Adam became a living being”; the last Adam became a life-giving spirit. 46 But it is not the spiritual that is first but the natural, and then the spiritual. 47 The first man was from the earth, a man of dust; the second man is from heaven. 48 As was the man of dust, so also are those who are of the dust, and as is the man of heaven, so also are those who are of heaven. 49 Just as we have borne the image of the man of dust, we shall also bear the image of the man of heaven.”

All people bear the image of the man of dust, but because of Jesus all people will bear the image of the man of heaven. Paul again sets Adam and Christ in deliberate contrast. Humanity has been deeply impacted by Adam’s sin and by the sinful world that followed, but humanity is also transformed through Christ’s righteousness. Certainly, all humans are impacted by those around them—the sin of those around them and the righteousness of those around them. As humanity was impacted by Adam’s disobedience, so humanity is impacted for good by Jesus’ obedience.

I do not believe this passage requires us to conclude that human beings are born with an inherently sinful nature. Scripture describes humanity as profoundly affected by the sins of parents, ancestors, and the surrounding world. But I believe human beings retain genuine moral agency and the capacity to respond to what is good. Overcoming sin is difficult, and God's help is essential. Consider 1 Corinthians 10:13: “No temptation has overtaken you that is not common to man. God is faithful, and he will not let you be tempted beyond your ability, but with the temptation he will also provide the way of escape, that you may be able to endure it.” For believers, this is a remarkable promise that temptation need not determine our choices. It also raises an important question about how moral inability relates to God's just commands and judgments.

15) Paul talks about how sin resides in our flesh. Romans 7:16-25 says, “Now if I do what I do not want, I agree with the law, that it is good. 17 So now it is no longer I who do it, but sin that dwells within me. 18 For I know that nothing good dwells in me, that is, in my flesh. For I have the desire to do what is right, but not the ability to carry it out. 19 For I do not do the good I want, but the evil I do not want is what I keep on doing. 20 Now if I do what I do not want, it is no longer I who do it, but sin that dwells within me.

21 So I find it to be a law that when I want to do right, evil lies close at hand. 22 For I delight in the law of God, in my inner being, 23 but I see in my members another law waging war against the law of my mind and making me captive to the law of sin that dwells in my members. 24 Wretched man that I am! Who will deliver me from this body of death? 25 Thanks be to God through Jesus Christ our Lord! So then, I myself serve the law of God with my mind, but with my flesh I serve the law of sin.”

So, sin dwells within each of us, and even when we have the desire to do what is right, we struggle to carry it out. He affirms in verse 23 that the law of sin “dwells” in him. Sin is inside of him! Humans are obviously, according to Paul, corrupted by sin within, which is why humans need Christ and the Holy Spirit. Paul’s hope is found, per verse 25, in being delivered from his sin through Jesus Christ our Lord, who because of his sacrifice, death, and resurrection has made a way for people to have new birth and the gift of the Holy Spirit to fight this indwelling sin.

But did God create us with this indwelling sin? Scripture also describes humanity becoming corrupt, as several passages cited above emphasize. I do not believe God created anyone morally corrupt. Once sin takes root, however, humanity needs more than good advice; we need deliverance. The gospel offers that deliverance through faith in Jesus, who overcame sin and offered himself for us, and through the power of the Holy Spirit, who sanctifies us and makes us like Christ.

Peter also talks about the indwelling sin within every person in 1 Peter 2:11, “Beloved, I urge you as sojourners and exiles to abstain from the passions of the flesh, which wage war against your soul.” All people have the passions of the flesh – sin – that wage war against us in all Christians’ fight to choose to do good, not evil. Paul speaks to this battle in Romans 12:1-2, “I appeal to you therefore, brothers, by the mercies of God, to present your bodies as a living sacrifice, holy and acceptable to God, which is your spiritual worship. 2 Do not be conformed to this world, but be transformed by the renewal of your mind, that by testing you may discern what is the will of God, what is good and acceptable and perfect.” Christians need to be transformed by the renewal of our minds. Sin does not only impact our hearts (Jeremiah 17:9), it impacts our minds. Our minds need to be transformed too.

In summary, humans have sin because all have chosen sin over God’s way, and all humans have the opportunity to become fully holy and cease sinning by following Jesus, the man who overcame sin himself. By faith in Jesus, obedience to God in loving Him and our neighbor, and by the power of the Holy Spirit, every human can become like Christ, fully conformed to the image of Christ.

So, humans are not sinful by nature. Sin is like a sickness. It is not an inherited essence or a corrupt nature God created us with. Human beings are made in God’s image with genuine freedom and real inclinations that can be directed toward good or evil. Sin therefore does not define what humanity ultimately is or what God created humanity to become.

But what about verse 18? Doesn't Paul describe an inability to carry out the good he desires? I take that struggle seriously. The question is whether it proves that human beings are created with a sinful nature, or whether it describes the deeply corrupting and enslaving power of sin from which we need deliverance. I believe God created humanity as “very good” (Genesis 1:31), with genuine moral agency, but that people become corrupted through their choices and need God's help to return to what He created them to be. This distinction matters because I believe Scripture calls Christians to expect genuine freedom from sin through the power of the Holy Spirit. A theology that treats permanent moral failure as inevitable may unintentionally lower expectations for sanctification, even though many Christians who affirm original sin take holiness very seriously.

Nevertheless, Paul still expresses that he has an inability to do the good in his current state. Thankfully, he does not end with that statement. He says in verse 24-25 that he will be delivered from his sin by Jesus. So, 1) humans are not created with a sinful nature, yet all have become corrupt through evil choices and have sin, and 2) apart from faith in Jesus and the gift of the Holy Spirit, deliverance from sin is not possible. We do not have the ability to become sinless without faith in Jesus and the gift of the Holy Spirit, who promises to sanctify us completely. But, Paul’s inability to do good still does not mean God created humans with a sinful nature.

In the midst of the dire reality of sin, there is great hope. The Catholic Catechism quotes both Leo the Great and Thomas Aquinas to express the conviction that God can bring a greater good even out of the evil of the Fall: “Christ’s inexpressible grace gave us blessings better than those the demon’s envy had taken away,” and, “God permits evil in order to draw forth some greater good” (Catholic Church, 1997, §412). God, in creating the world, of course knew that Adam and Eve would fall, and we can rest assured that He allowed that for a greater good that one day, I believe, we will see and understand.

What does the Bible say about Jesus and sin?

1. Jesus was tempted.

Hebrews 4:15 says, “For we do not have a high priest who is unable to sympathize with our weaknesses, but one who in every respect has been tempted as we are, yet without sin.” Jesus was made like humanity in every respect (Hebrews 2:17) and was tempted by sin just as the rest of the humanity was. He was tempted in all points as we are, yet, he was without sin (Hebrews 4:15).

2. Jesus became morally perfect. For the full biblical explanation, see my two-part series, beginning with 13. Jesus’ Moral Development, Part 1: What Does It Mean That He Was “Made Perfect”?

Jesus is extraordinary in his love for God and people. I believe he underwent genuine moral development: he learned obedience, overcame sin, and became extraordinarily righteous and holy through his dependence upon God and the power of the Holy Spirit. He made remarkable, courageous choices out of his deep love for God and others.

I cannot imagine how difficult—and at times isolating—his life must have been. Jesus knew that his path of obedience would ultimately lead to rejection, suffering, and the cross, yet he continued faithfully. The pressure he endured was immense. He carried the weight of the world on his shoulders, and still he persevered, ultimately laying down his life for humanity. His extraordinary love, courage, and faithfulness make his achievement all the more remarkable.

The Jesus I find in Scripture—God’s genuinely human Messiah, not God Almighty—has truly shown humanity the way to the Father. He is the Way, the Truth, and the Life (John 14:6). Through his dependence upon God and the power of the Holy Spirit, he learned obedience, overcame sin, and was made perfect, ultimately offering himself to God without blemish.

All Christians, all followers of God, are called to follow Jesus in his love, obedience, and courage. His life demonstrates that overcoming sin is possible for human beings—not through our strength alone, but through God's grace and the power of the Holy Spirit. All things are possible with God!

May we follow Jesus faithfully and be transformed into his image—the image of the invisible God (Colossians 1:15; Romans 8:29). God is faithful. He will complete the good work He has begun in us (Philippians 1:6).

Is original sin biblical?

While I have already addressed this to some extent through the biblical evidence that humans are not born with a sinful nature, I now address the question head-on, as I believe the doctrine of original sin has, in some respects, hindered the Church's understanding of what God can accomplish in human beings. If Jesus was genuinely human and became perfect through obedience, then his life is profoundly important for understanding what God intends for humanity. So, is original sin biblical? What does the Bible say?

Again, what is original sin? Original sin refers to Christian doctrines teaching that Adam’s fall leaves subsequent humanity in an inherited fallen condition. Traditions formulate this differently. Catholic teaching says Adam’s sin leaves humanity deprived of original holiness and inclined toward sin, while explicitly stating that original sin in Adam’s descendants is a state rather than their personal fault. Reformed formulations can speak more strongly of inherited guilt and a corrupted nature (Catholic Church, 1997, §§403–406; Calvin, 1845, II.1.8; Westminster Assembly, 1646, ch. VI). The particular claim I am challenging here is that human beings are born with a corrupt sinful nature inherited from Adam that makes sin unavoidable. I do not believe that claim is stated explicitly—or required implicitly—by Scripture. The Bible says we are created in the image of God and repeatedly calls us to choose between good and evil. There are, I believe, serious biblical and theological problems with defining human nature itself as corrupt from birth.

Some influential Western theologians did teach inherited corruption very strongly. Calvin defined original sin as hereditary corruption and depravity extending throughout human nature, and the Westminster Confession says Adam’s guilt is imputed and a corrupted nature is conveyed to his posterity (Calvin, 1845, II.1.8; Westminster Assembly, 1646, ch. VI). Augustine’s fifth-century writings likewise explicitly argue that infants inherit original sin even though they have committed no personal sin, and he connects infant baptism with remission of that inherited sin (Augustine, 1887, bk. I, chs. 16, 26; bk. III, ch. 7). The Catholic Church today formulates original sin more carefully, teaching that human nature is wounded rather than totally corrupted and that original sin is not a personal fault in Adam’s descendants (Catholic Church, 1997, §§404–405).

While people are certainly born mortal into a world deeply affected by sin and death, I do not believe Scripture teaches that God creates people morally corrupt or makes sin unavoidable by nature. Humans need grace, deliverance, transformation, and the Holy Spirit; none of that requires us to say that God creates human beings with a morally corrupt nature. I therefore do not believe inherited moral corruption, understood as an unavoidable sinful nature present from birth, accurately reflects the biblical picture of humanity.

Original sin is not biblical for the following reasons:

The following section combines my own biblical analysis with ideas I first encountered in Alfred T. Overstreet’s Are Men Born Sinners? and Paul Ellis’s series on original sin at Escape to Reality. I am grateful for the questions and arguments they raised, while the conclusions below remain my own and should be tested against Scripture (Overstreet, n.d.; Ellis, 2022a, 2022b, 2022c, 2023).

1. The Jewish Perspective on Sin

Rabbinic Judaism generally does not teach the later Western Christian doctrine that every person inherits Adam’s personal guilt or is born with a totally corrupt nature. Jewish sources are not monolithic: some traditions connect Adam’s transgression with later human sin and death, while others reject the idea that Adam is personally responsible for the sins of his descendants. What is especially consistent across rabbinic sources is a strong emphasis on human moral responsibility and the genuine choice between good and evil. The Jewish Encyclopedia describes free will as a fundamental principle of rabbinic Judaism and notes that the majority Jewish view did not hold Adam responsible for the sins of humanity (Jewish Encyclopedia, “Free Will”; “Judaism”; “Sin”). These later rabbinic formulations should not simply be projected backward onto every Jew in Jesus’ time, but they are important evidence that inherited personal guilt was not the only Jewish way of understanding human sin.

2. Adam sinned without a sinful nature (Ellis, 2023).

Adam's original disobedience shows that sin was possible even before any inherited sinful nature existed. This raises the question of whether an inherited morally corrupt nature is necessary to explain why his descendants sin (Ellis, 2023). Adam's transgression had serious consequences for the human race, yet Scripture continues to speak of humanity as created in God's image after the Fall (Genesis 9:6; Psalm 139:13–14; James 3:9). I believe we sin when we choose what is wrong, not because God creates us incapable of choosing what is good. Christians who affirm original sin generally insist that people remain responsible for their sins. Nevertheless, I am concerned that an inherited inability to avoid sin can sometimes be misunderstood as an excuse for wrongdoing. In our immaturity, as children who have not yet learned to trust God's ways fully, all humanity has sinned. Sometimes we choose wrongly out of ignorance or immaturity; at other times, we knowingly choose what is wrong. Yet human beings also genuinely choose what is good. I believe God created us with the capacity for goodness and intends to teach, correct, and transform us until we become fully holy.

3. Genesis 3 does not explicitly teach inherited moral corruption (Ellis, 2023).

God gave Adam serious consequences for his sin (Genesis 3:14–19), including mortality, but this passage does not explicitly say that Adam's descendants will inherit personal guilt or a nature that makes sin morally unavoidable. I recognize that Christians draw on other passages, especially Romans 5, to explain the consequences of the Fall. Still, I believe inherited moral inability raises serious questions about how God's just judgment relates to personal responsibility (Ellis, 2023).

4. Scripture describes human beings as becoming corrupt (Ellis, 2023).

Ellis contrasts the doctrine of inherited corruption with biblical passages that describe human beings as becoming corrupt and going astray (Ellis, 2023). Psalm 14:3 says, “All have turned aside and become corrupt.” Galatians 6:8 likewise connects corruption with sowing to the flesh: “For the one who sows to his own flesh will from the flesh reap corruption, but the one who sows to the Spirit will from the Spirit reap eternal life.” And 1 Timothy 6:10 describes the destructive consequences of choosing to love money: some have wandered from the faith and brought suffering upon themselves. These passages emphasize the formative power of our choices. I recognize that people who affirm inherited corruption can also believe that sinful choices make us more corrupt. Nevertheless, I believe Scripture's repeated language of becoming corrupt deserves careful consideration alongside its continuing affirmation that human beings bear God's image. In my understanding, moral corruption is not what God originally created humanity to be; it develops as people turn away from His ways.

5. Parental righteousness is not automatically inherited (Ellis, 2023).

Children of Spirit-filled believers are not automatically righteous merely because their parents are faithful (Ellis, 2023). Scripture repeatedly emphasizes personal faith and obedience. This observation does not, by itself, disprove every account of inherited corruption, but it reinforces the importance of distinguishing the moral character of a person from that person's family background.

6. The righteousness of Old Testament believers deserves consideration (Ellis, 2023).

Abel, Adam's son, was called righteous (Matthew 23:35). Noah, Lot, and Daniel are also described as righteous (Genesis 6:9; Ezekiel 14:20; 2 Peter 2:7). Their lives testify to the reality of faith and obedience in a world affected by sin. Christians who affirm original sin can explain their righteousness through God's grace, and I do not claim these examples disprove inherited corruption by themselves. Still, they are important reminders that human beings can respond to God and pursue righteousness (Ellis, 2023). I believe this deserves consideration when evaluating Calvin's account of hereditary depravity (Calvin, 1845, II.1.8–9).

7. Some formulations of original sin raise questions about moral freedom (Ellis, 2023).

Some accounts of inherited moral inability can, when understood fatalistically, discourage people from believing they can genuinely respond to God's grace and grow in holiness. I recognize that many Christians who affirm original sin strongly emphasize repentance, faith, and obedience. My concern is with interpretations that make continuing sin seem inescapable. Romans 6:1 asks, “What shall we say then? Are we to continue in sin?” Romans 6:4 says Christ was raised so that “we too may live a new life.” I believe Paul calls Christians to make real choices in response to the transforming work of the Holy Spirit. The gospel gives us hope that sin need not continue to rule us.

8. I do not find an inherited sinful nature explicitly established in Scripture, while many passages emphasize human moral responsibility (Ellis, 2023).

9. Inherited guilt raises serious questions about God's justice (Ellis, 2023).

Some Christian formulations, particularly in Reformed theology, teach that Adam's guilt is imputed to his descendants. I find this difficult to reconcile with Scripture's emphasis on individual moral responsibility. Deuteronomy 24:16 says, “Fathers shall not be put to death because of their children, nor shall children be put to death because of their fathers. Each one shall be put to death for his own sin.” Ezekiel 18:20 says, “The soul who sins shall die. The son shall not suffer for the iniquity of the father, nor the father suffer for the iniquity of the son. The righteousness of the righteous shall be upon himself, and the wickedness of the wicked shall be upon himself.” Although Adam's sin brought devastating consequences upon humanity, I do not believe Scripture requires us to conclude that every person inherits personal guilt for his transgression. The principle of personal responsibility is explicit in these verses: God holds individuals accountable for their own wrongdoing, not for sins committed by their parents or ancestors. We may inherit the consequences of another person's sin without inheriting personal guilt for that sin. Adam's sin affected all humanity, but it does not follow that God considers every person personally guilty of Adam's act.

10. It can blur the distinction between an inherited condition and culpable choice (Overstreet, n.d.).

One concern I share with Overstreet is that if a person is unable not to sin because of an inherited nature, we still need to explain how personal guilt relates to that inability. Scripture repeatedly calls people to repent and holds them accountable for their actions. My concern is not that Christians who affirm original sin deny responsibility—many strongly affirm it—but that some formulations can make the relationship between inherited condition and culpable choice difficult to explain.

11. It can unintentionally create room for excusing sin (Overstreet, n.d.).

Christians who affirm original sin generally do not intend it to excuse personal wrongdoing. Still, if someone hears, “I sin because my nature makes sin unavoidable,” that belief can become an excuse for continued sin. Scripture instead repeatedly calls people to repent, resist temptation, obey God, and take responsibility for their actions. I believe our theology should reinforce those calls rather than weaken them.

12. It raises a difficult question about divine justice and moral inability (Overstreet, n.d.).

If God creates each person and a theological system says each person is born with a condition that makes sin morally unavoidable, then we have to explain how just judgment relates to that inability. Christian traditions have developed answers to this problem, but I do not find inherited moral inability necessary to explain the biblical evidence. Scripture’s repeated commands, warnings, invitations, and judgments make better sense to me if human beings possess genuine moral agency even while deeply needing God’s grace.

13. Some formulations can make God’s justice harder to understand (Overstreet, n.d.).

It is important to be fair here because Christian traditions do not all define original sin in the same way. Catholic teaching, for example, explicitly says original sin is not a personal fault in Adam’s descendants and that human nature is wounded rather than totally corrupted. Reformed confessions can speak more strongly of inherited guilt and corruption (Catholic Church, 1997, §§404–405; Westminster Assembly, 1646, ch. VI). My criticism is directed especially at formulations that make people personally culpable for an inherited condition while also making sin unavoidable.

14. It can become a stumbling block for some non-Christians (Overstreet, n.d.).

I do not assume that every non-Christian reacts to this doctrine in the same way. But for some people, the idea that God condemns human beings for an inherited condition they did not choose creates a serious moral obstacle. That reaction does not prove the doctrine false. It does, however, give Christians another reason to state the doctrine carefully and make sure we are not attributing to God something Scripture itself does not teach.

15. It may lower expectations for sanctification when it is understood fatalistically (Overstreet, n.d.).

Many Christians who affirm original sin pursue holiness seriously, and I do not want to deny that. My concern is narrower: if believers assume that continuing sin is inevitable in this life because their very nature remains inherently sinful, they may read the New Testament’s strong calls to holiness through unnecessarily low expectations. I believe Christians should take both the seriousness of sin and the transforming power of the Holy Spirit with full seriousness.

16. It can become a ready explanation for continuing sin (Overstreet, n.d.).

Christians sometimes say that they cannot help but sin because of an inherited sinful nature. Even when that is not what a tradition officially teaches, the idea can function that way in practice. Scripture gives believers no permission to become complacent about sin. Christians are repeatedly called to resist sin, walk by the Spirit, put sinful practices to death, and grow in holiness.

17. It can unintentionally lower Christians’ expectations for genuine growth in holiness (Overstreet, n.d.).

Phrases such as “Nobody’s perfect” or “Christians are not perfect, just forgiven” can express humility and dependence on grace. But they can also be used to lower expectations for transformation if they are treated as the final word about Christian life. I believe the New Testament holds together forgiveness, dependence on grace, and a very high expectation that believers will actually be transformed.

18. It creates tension, in my view, with biblical themes of guilt, grace, repentance, and mercy (Overstreet, n.d.).

Scripture treats sin as real wrongdoing for which people are accountable, while also distinguishing deliberate rebellion from sins committed in ignorance and repeatedly offering mercy, forgiveness, and restoration. I therefore struggle with formulations in which a person is born unable to avoid sin and is then treated as guilty simply for possessing that inherited condition. At the same time, I recognize that Christians who affirm original sin explain these relationships in different ways and do not generally intend to deny either grace or responsibility.

Taken together, these concerns lead me to reject formulations of original sin that make personal sin morally unavoidable because of a corrupt nature inherited at birth. Scripture says that God judges the world in righteousness (Psalm 9:8), holds people responsible for their own sins (Deuteronomy 24:16; Ezekiel 18:20), and continually calls people to repentance. Christian traditions differ significantly in how they explain inherited sin: Catholic teaching says original sin is a state rather than personal fault, while the Westminster Confession speaks of imputed guilt and a corrupted nature conveyed to Adam’s posterity (Catholic Church, 1997, §§404–405; Westminster Assembly, 1646, ch. VI). My disagreement is especially with formulations that make sin unavoidable by nature and then treat people as personally culpable simply for possessing that inherited condition.

19. It raises the question of how Jesus could be genuinely human and yet become morally perfect, ultimately being described as “without sin” (1 John 3:5).

Hebrews 2:17 says that Jesus was made like his brothers and sisters in every respect. Hebrews 2:14 says that he shared in our flesh and blood, while Hebrews 4:15 says he was tempted in every way as we are. How could Jesus have experienced temptation as we do if he did not genuinely share our human nature? Hebrews 2:18 also says that Jesus suffered when he was tempted. These passages reveal the reality of his human struggles and dependence upon God.

I believe Jesus underwent genuine moral development. He learned obedience through suffering (Hebrews 5:8), overcame sin, and became extraordinarily righteous and holy, ultimately offering himself to God without blemish (Hebrews 9:14). Jesus' life demonstrates that overcoming sin and becoming morally mature and holy are genuinely possible for human beings through dependence upon God, obedience, and the power of the Holy Spirit.

Furthermore, I believe understanding Jesus as God Almighty can obscure the extraordinary nature of his human achievement. His remarkable character, courage, obedience, and loving sacrifice were not the accomplishments of deity, but of God's genuinely human Messiah, who depended upon God and loved Him wholeheartedly. Far from diminishing Jesus, this understanding makes his achievement all the more extraordinary. His genuine moral development and victory over sin reveal something beautiful about humanity's creation in God's image and what God can accomplish in human beings through His grace and Spirit.

20. I believe some later doctrines and theological systems developed in conversation with assumptions about inherited sin, and each deserves to be tested independently against Scripture.

One example is the Roman Catholic doctrine of the Immaculate Conception. Catholic teaching does not merely say that Mary had to be “pure enough” to become Jesus’ mother. It teaches that Mary was preserved from the stain of original sin from the first moment of her conception by a singular grace of God and through the merits of Christ; the Catechism connects this grace with her vocation and her free assent to God (Catholic Church, 1997, §§490–492). I respect the care with which Catholic theology states the doctrine, but I do not find the Immaculate Conception itself taught in Scripture.

A second issue is infant baptism and original sin. Infant baptism has a complex history and should not be reduced to one theological explanation. Augustine, however, explicitly argued that infants inherit original sin despite having committed no personal sin and connected baptism with remission of that inherited sin (Augustine, 1887, bk. I, chs. 16, 26; bk. III, ch. 7). I do not find Scripture teaching that infants bear Adam’s personal guilt.

A third issue is the extent of inherited corruption. The Westminster Confession says Adam’s guilt is imputed and that death in sin and a corrupted nature are conveyed to his posterity; it also says this corruption remains in those who are regenerated (Westminster Assembly, 1646, ch. VI). I disagree with that description of human nature. Scripture continues to speak of human beings after the Fall as bearing God’s image (Genesis 9:6; James 3:9), and Paul can still describe humanity as God’s offspring (Acts 17:28–29). I therefore do not believe the image of God was erased by Adam’s sin.

I also disagree with theological systems that make a sinner naturally incapable of responding to God until an antecedent change in human nature has already occurred. Scripture certainly teaches that salvation, new birth, and sanctification depend on God’s grace and the work of the Holy Spirit (John 3:5; John 6:44–45; Titus 3:5; James 1:18). But Scripture also repeatedly commands human beings to repent, turn, receive God’s word, submit to God, and cast away their transgressions (Ezekiel 18:30–32; Acts 3:19; James 1:21; James 4:7–8). I therefore understand regeneration and conversion as involving both God’s initiative and a genuine human response to grace.

Augustine’s teaching became enormously influential in Western Christianity, especially in debates over original sin and the necessity of grace (Augustine, 1887; Catholic Church, 1997, §406). Later Christian traditions developed different accounts of freedom, grace, election, predestination, and regeneration. I do not need to settle every one of those debates here. My narrower point is that a doctrine of inherited moral inability should not simply be assumed; it should be demonstrated from Scripture.

Overstreet makes a useful distinction between natural and moral inability. A person may be physically unable to lift a car off the ground, while being “unable” to sell a valuable car for one dollar simply because he or she is unwilling to do so (Overstreet, n.d.). I think Scripture usually speaks of sinful inability in this moral and relational sense: human beings become enslaved to sin, hardened, deceived, and unwilling, and they desperately need God’s grace to be freed.

Here are some verses that describe the liberation from sin Christians receive through Christ:

“For we know that our old self was crucified with him so that the body ruled by sin might be done away with, that we should no longer be slaves to sin…” Romans 6:6

“For sin shall no longer be your master, because you are not under the law, but under grace.” Romans 6:14

“But thanks be to God that, though you used to be slaves to sin, you have come to obey from your heart the pattern of teaching that has now claimed your allegiance. You have been set free from sin and have become slaves to righteousness.” Romans 6:17–18

“But now that you have been set free from sin and have become slaves of God, the benefit you reap leads to holiness, and the result is eternal life.” Romans 6:22

“Jesus replied, ‘Very truly I tell you, everyone who sins is a slave to sin. Now a slave has no permanent place in the family, but a son belongs to it forever. So if the Son sets you free, you will be free indeed.’” John 8:34–36

“Whoever claims to live in him must live as Jesus did.” 1 John 2:6

These are extraordinary promises about the power of grace and the Holy Spirit to transform human life. God calls Christians to holiness (Matthew 5:48; 1 Peter 1:15), and I want to take those commands seriously without minimizing how deeply human beings need divine help. My disagreement is not with Christians who honestly confess ongoing struggle with sin. It is with making permanent moral inability part of the definition of human nature itself.

21. I believe original sin can obscure important truths about Adam and humanity's creation in God's image.

When Adam disobeyed, Adam disobeyed – not all of humanity. God holds people accountable for the sins they commit, not the sin of Adam. The sin of humanity is not Adam’s fault. He is responsible for his own sin.

Humans are created upright, in the image and likeness of God, with free will and the ability to choose good or evil. I do not believe humans are created with a sinful, fallen nature. Rather, we are created in God's image and must learn to choose what is good. Sometimes we choose wrongly through ignorance or immaturity; at other times, we knowingly choose what is wrong. In my understanding, humans become morally corrupt through their own sinful choices; they are not born morally corrupt. I find the idea of inherited moral guilt difficult to reconcile with the biblical emphasis on personal responsibility (Ezekiel 18:20; Deuteronomy 24:16; Overstreet, n.d.).

It is important to distinguish inherited guilt from inherited consequences or corruption. Some Christian traditions teach that Adam's guilt is imputed to his descendants, while others reject inherited personal guilt but maintain that humanity inherits a fallen condition because of Adam's sin. My objection to inherited guilt does not, by itself, disprove inherited corruption. However, based on the biblical evidence examined throughout this article, I also reject the conclusion that humans are born with an inherently sinful nature.

I believe Scripture and sound moral reasoning should be consistent. God has given human beings the capacity to reason and a conscience through which to recognize moral truths. We should exercise these gifts humbly, testing our conclusions against Scripture. When a doctrine appears inconsistent with God's revealed justice and character, I believe it is wise to examine that doctrine carefully.

For example, I find it morally difficult to reconcile God's perfect justice with the idea that the entire human race could be held personally guilty for the sin of one man. Moral responsibility is personal; another person's wrongdoing does not automatically make us guilty of committing that wrongdoing. Although we can inherit consequences from the actions of others, inheriting consequences is not the same as inheriting personal guilt. I believe God's perfect justice requires that individuals be held accountable for their own sins, not condemned as personally guilty for an act they did not commit.

Objections:

1. “There is no man who does not sin…” 1 Kings 8:46, 2 Chronicles 6:36 (Ellis, 2022b)

This agrees with Romans 3:23: “All have sinned.” Over and over, Scripture says that human beings have gone astray and fallen short of God's glory. Later rabbinic Judaism generally does not affirm the Western Christian doctrine of inherited personal guilt, and Jewish writings strongly emphasize moral responsibility and the choice between good and evil (Jewish Encyclopedia, “Free Will”; “Judaism”; “Sin”). These traditions are diverse, but they provide an important perspective on how universal sinfulness can be understood without assuming inherited guilt.

These verses establish the universality of sin, but I do not believe they establish the inheritance of Adam's guilt or a nature that makes sin morally unavoidable. The fact that all people do sin does not, by itself, prove that choosing good is impossible. By God's grace, human beings can genuinely choose what is right, even though we repeatedly turn toward selfishness and disobedience. God calls us to choose Him, and I believe we remain morally responsible for our responses.

2. “Behold, I was brought forth in iniquity, and in sin my mother conceived me.” Psalm 51:5 (Ellis, 2022b)

Psalm 51:5 is poetic language in a psalm of intense repentance. David may be emphasizing that sin has surrounded human life from its earliest beginning, or he may be referring to the sinful human condition into which he was conceived. But the verse does not say that David inherited Adam’s guilt or that God created David with a morally corrupt nature. Most importantly, David never uses this statement to excuse himself. He begins the psalm by taking responsibility for his own sin and praying, “Be gracious to me, O God, according to your loving-kindness” (Psalm 51:1). In Psalm 71:6 David also says, “From birth I have relied on you; you brought me forth from my mother’s womb. I will ever praise you.” David’s writings therefore should not be reduced to the idea that he was created morally corrupt and unable to choose God. Psalm 139 celebrates God’s work in forming human life, and God certainly did not create His children in His image only to make their very nature evil.

3. “Those who speak lies go astray from birth.” Psalm 58:3 (Ellis, 2022b)

Psalm 58 uses forceful poetic language to describe wickedness from the earliest stages of life. I do not believe this language requires the conclusion that God creates every human being morally corrupt. I understand “going astray” as describing a departure from what is right, while recognizing that other Christians read the verse as evidence of an inherited fallen condition.

4. “Every good tree bears good fruit, but the bad tree bears bad fruit.” Matthew 7:17 (Ellis, 2022a)

Jesus is teaching his listeners to recognize false prophets by their fruit. The illustration shows that conduct reveals character, but it does not explicitly address when or how a person's moral condition originates. I believe our choices shape our character, while recognizing that this particular illustration does not, by itself, settle the question of inherited corruption.

5. “That which proceeds out of the man, that is what defiles the man. For from within, out of the heart of men, proceed the evil thoughts, fornications, thefts, murders, adulteries, deeds of coveting and wickedness, as well as deceit, sensuality, envy, slander, pride and foolishness. All these evil things proceed from within and defile the man.” Mark 7:20-23 (Ellis, 2022a)

Jesus identifies specific evil thoughts and deeds that arise from the human heart and defile a person. This passage vividly describes the reality of human sin, but it does not explicitly explain whether moral corruption is inherited at birth or develops through sinful choices.

6. “No one is good except God alone.” Mark 10:18 (Ellis, 2022a)

While everyone falls short of God's glory and needs His grace, this saying does not, by itself, establish that everyone is born with an inherently corrupt nature. Human beings are created in God's image, and I believe God intends to make His children fully holy and like Christ.

7. “This is the judgment, that the Light has come into the world, and men loved the darkness rather than the Light, for their deeds were evil.” John 3:19 (Ellis, 2022a)

Jesus connects people's love of darkness with their evil deeds. The verse emphasizes moral choices and their consequences; it does not directly address the inheritance of Adam's guilt or an inherently sinful nature. Similarly, Adam and Eve hid after their disobedience in Genesis 3.

8. “As it is written, ’There is none righteous, not even one; there is none who understands, there is none who seeks for God; all have turned aside, together they have become worthless. There is no one who does good, not even one.” Romans 3:10-12 (Ellis, 2022a)

Paul's affirmation that no one is righteous underscores humanity's universal need for God's grace. It does not, by itself, establish that every person is born personally guilty for Adam's transgression. I believe human choices are central to how we become righteous or unrighteous.

In context, Paul is addressing the universal problem of sin among both Jews and Gentiles (Romans 3:9). This establishes humanity's universal sinfulness, but it does not, by itself, establish that human beings inherit a morally corrupt nature from birth. Our righteousness falls short of the Lord’s righteousness (Romans 3:21-23). Of course compared to God, “there is none righteous”. We all need the righteousness that comes through faith to those who believe.

Furthermore, Paul quotes the language of people having “turned aside” and “become worthless” (Romans 3:12). I understand this as describing the tragic corruption of human conduct, not as a declaration that any person is inherently without worth. The language of turning away deserves attention when considering the relationship between sinful choices and human corruption.

9. “For all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God.” Romans 3:23

The fact that all have sinned does not, by itself, prove inherited moral inability. “All of us, like sheep, have gone astray” (Isaiah 53:6). Humanity is lost and needs God, but I believe these verses describe the reality of universal sinful conduct without establishing that every person is born incapable of choosing good. They also raise a serious question about how personal responsibility relates to any proposed inherited inability.

10. “Therefore, just as through one man sin entered into the world, and death through sin, and so death spread to all men, because all sinned.” Romans 5:12 (Ellis, 2022a)

Paul says that sin entered the world through Adam and that all have sinned. I believe Romans 5 distinguishes the consequences of Adam's act, which affect the whole human race, from each person's moral responsibility. The passage does not explicitly say that Adam's personal guilt is imputed to every descendant, although Christians have interpreted Paul's wider argument differently.

11. “For as through the one man’s disobedience the many were made sinners, so also through the obedience of the one man the many will be made righteous.” Romans 5:19 (Ellis, 2022a)

Our individual actions can profoundly affect others. Adam's disobedience had consequences for all who followed him. Christ's obedience, death, and resurrection, however, are not merely an example; through his saving work, God offers justification and life. Jesus has also shown us the Way (John 14:6), and God gives the Holy Spirit to those who put their faith in him, empowering them to walk in righteousness. I believe Paul's contrast highlights the far-reaching effects of both Adam's transgression and Christ's saving obedience.

Further, Scripture repeatedly describes people as enslaved to sin (Romans 6:17). This language highlights humanity's desperate need for liberation through Christ. Galatians 3:22 says, “The whole world is a prisoner because of sin.” Other relevant passages include John 8:34; Romans 6:6, 16–20, 22; 7:4, 14; Galatians 4:7; and 2 Peter 2:9. These texts emphasize bondage and deliverance, although they do not, by themselves, settle the question of how our bondage began.

Some formulations of original sin emphasize inherited guilt and condemnation. I believe Scripture also places tremendous emphasis on humanity's need to be liberated from sin itself. Paul cries, “Who will rescue me from this body that is subject to death?” (Romans 7:24), and Jesus came to proclaim freedom to captives (Luke 4:18). Some say, “You're not a sinner because you sin; you sin because you're a sinner.” But what establishes us as sinners in the first place? I believe our own sinful choices matter profoundly. We are influenced by the wrongdoing of others, yet God still holds us responsible for how we respond. His law of love is reflected in the work of conscience (Romans 2:14–15). In Christ, God offers not merely forgiveness, but liberation and transformation.

12. Does Scripture teach that the body itself is evil?

Our flesh is not evil. Our bodies can be used for righteousness or unrighteousness. Romans 6:13 says, “Do not offer any part of yourself to sin as an instrument of wickedness, but rather offer yourselves to God as those who have been brought from death to life; and offer every part of yourself to him as an instrument of righteousness.” We are beautifully, fearfully, and wonderfully created by God - all of us, including our bodies.

Further, Romans 8:3 says, “For what the Law could not do, weak as it was through the flesh, God did: sending his own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh and as an offering for sin, he condemned sin in the flesh.” Paul speaks of Jesus coming “in the likeness of sinful flesh,” but this does not require us to regard the human body itself as evil. Flesh is part of God's good creation, even as human life has become deeply affected by sin.

13. “The carnal mind is enmity against God; for it is not subject to the law of God, nor indeed can be.” Romans 8:7 (Ellis, 2022a)

I do not believe Romans 8:7, by itself, proves that every person inherits moral corruption from birth. Paul contrasts the mind set on the flesh with the mind set on the Spirit. I believe this contrast highlights the importance of how we live and what we pursue. Adam and Eve sinned despite not having been created with a sinful nature, which shows that inherited corruption is not necessary to explain the first human disobedience.

14. “And you were dead in your trespasses and sins.” Ephesians 2:1 (Ellis, 2022a)

We are dead in our trespasses and sins. These trespasses and sins we choose to commit. As children of God made in His image, we can also choose to do what is right and not sin.

15. “And you were dead in the trespasses and sins 2 in which you once walked, following the course of this world, following the prince of the power of the air, the spirit that is now at work in the sons of disobedience— 3 among whom we all once lived in the passions of our flesh, carrying out the desires of the flesh and the mind, and were by nature children of wrath, like the rest of mankind. 4 But God, being rich in mercy, because of the great love with which he loved us, 5 even when we were dead in our trespasses, made us alive together with Christ—by grace you have been saved— 6 and raised us up with him and seated us with him in the heavenly places in Christ Jesus, 7 so that in the coming ages he might show the immeasurable riches of his grace in kindness toward us in Christ Jesus. 8 For by grace you have been saved through faith. And this is not your own doing; it is the gift of God, 9 not a result of works, so that no one may boast. 10 For we are his workmanship, created in Christ Jesus for good works, which God prepared beforehand, that we should walk in them.” Ephesians 2:1-10

Is Ephesians 2:3 clear evidence that humanity is born with a sinful nature? Paul describes humanity as “by nature children of wrath.” This is an important verse that deserves careful consideration. Many Christians understand “by nature” to refer to a sinful condition inherited from Adam. But does this verse actually establish that interpretation?

Consider the context. Paul describes people as walking in trespasses and sins, following the ways of the world, and carrying out the desires of the flesh and mind (Ephesians 2:1–3). He then describes them as “by nature children of wrath.” The passage clearly establishes humanity's deeply sinful condition, but does it establish that this condition is inherited from birth? Paul does not explicitly mention Adam or explain when and how this sinful condition originated.

Elsewhere, Scripture says that God created humanity as “very good” (Genesis 1:31) and in His own image (Genesis 1:26–27). Adam and Eve themselves sinned despite not having been created with a sinful nature. Scripture also describes human beings as having “turned aside” and “become corrupt” (Psalm 14:3). I believe these passages are important for distinguishing humanity as God originally created it from what humanity has become through sin.

I understand Paul's description of humanity as “by nature children of wrath” to reflect how deeply sin corrupts human beings. Our sinful choices affect our hearts, minds, desires, and character. Sin can become so deeply rooted in us that it characterizes our way of life. I recognize that other Christians interpret “by nature” as referring to an inherited fallen condition. Nevertheless, I do not believe Ephesians 2:3 requires the conclusion that human beings are born morally corrupt or incapable of choosing good because of Adam's sin.

Does this minimize the seriousness of sin or humanity's need for God's grace? Absolutely not! Paul immediately emphasizes that God, being rich in mercy, makes us alive with Christ even when we are dead in our sins. Salvation is by grace, not by our works (Ephesians 2:4–10). Humanity desperately needs God's mercy, deliverance, and transforming power.

God created human beings in His image, and I believe He holds us accountable for our own choices. Sin is a reality, and all humanity has chosen to sin. Nevertheless, Scripture repeatedly calls people to repent, resist evil, and pursue holiness. Jesus commands his followers to be perfect as their heavenly Father is perfect (Matthew 5:48), and 1 John 2:6 calls Christians to live as Jesus lived. These commands and promises give us reason to believe that, through God's grace and the power of the Holy Spirit, human beings can truly overcome sin and become like Christ.

I therefore do not believe an inherited sinful nature that makes sin morally unavoidable is necessary to explain humanity's universal sinfulness or our profound need for God's saving grace.

Why Jesus' Genuine Humanity Matters for Understanding Sin and Holiness

Note: For my full biblical argument that Jesus is not God Almighty but God's exalted human Messiah, please see the following section of my blog, "Who Is Jesus?"

I believe our understanding of Jesus' identity has profound implications for how we understand sin, holiness, and God's purposes for humanity.

Traditional Christianity teaches that Jesus is both fully God and fully human. I recognize that Trinitarian Christians also affirm Jesus' genuine humanity and believe Christians are called to become like him. Nevertheless, I am concerned that understanding Jesus as God Almighty can, at times, obscure the extraordinary significance of his human achievement and make his obedience and holiness seem beyond what ordinary human beings can attain.

I have heard people say—and have perhaps said myself—“Well, I'm not Jesus, so…” as a reason for falling short of his example. But Scripture calls us to walk as Jesus walked (1 John 2:6) and to become conformed to his image (Romans 8:29). We should take those commands and promises seriously.

I believe Jesus was genuinely human and underwent genuine moral development. He learned obedience through suffering (Hebrews 5:8), overcame sin, and became extraordinarily righteous and holy, ultimately offering himself to God without blemish (Hebrews 9:14). His remarkable character, courage, love, and obedience were achieved through his deep devotion to God and complete dependence upon the power of the Holy Spirit.

Far from diminishing Jesus, I believe this understanding makes his achievement all the more extraordinary. He truly walked the human path of learning obedience, overcoming sin, and surrendering himself to God. His life reveals what God can accomplish in a human being through His grace and Spirit.

Jesus commanded his followers to be perfect as their heavenly Father is perfect (Matthew 5:48). This does not mean that human beings become God. Rather, I believe God intends to transform us into people who genuinely reflect His holiness, righteousness, and love.

We cannot accomplish this through our own strength. We need God's grace, the power of the Holy Spirit, and a life of growing obedience and surrender. But I believe Scripture gives us every reason to trust that God can accomplish His purposes for our holiness.

Jesus has shown humanity the Way. He demonstrates what God can accomplish in a genuinely human life, and through him, God calls us to become like Christ.

This is one reason I believe Jesus' genuine humanity matters so profoundly for understanding original sin. If Jesus truly shared our humanity, underwent moral development, overcame sin, and became extraordinarily righteous and holy, then his life invites us to reconsider assumptions about human nature and what God intends human beings to become.

May we follow Jesus in his extraordinary love, courage, obedience, and dependence upon God.

Conclusion

I believe the Church, myself included, has at times underestimated the extent to which God intends to transform human beings into the image of Christ. Jesus is the Way, the Truth, and the Life (John 14:6). He showed humanity the way to God through his love, obedience, courage, and complete dependence upon the Father. Scripture calls Christians to walk as Jesus walked (1 John 2:6) and to become conformed to his image (Romans 8:29).

I believe God's commands and promises concerning holiness should be taken seriously. Jesus commanded his followers to be perfect as their heavenly Father is perfect (Matthew 5:48). This is not something we can accomplish through our own strength. We need God's grace, the power of the Holy Spirit, and a life of growing obedience and surrender. But I believe Scripture gives us strong grounds to trust that, through God's power, Christians can overcome sin and become fully holy.

Jesus himself underwent genuine moral development. He learned obedience through suffering, overcame sin, and became extraordinarily righteous and holy, ultimately offering himself to God without blemish. His life reveals what God can accomplish in a genuinely human being through His grace and Spirit.

I do not believe human beings are inherently corrupt or incapable of choosing good. We are created in God's image, made to love Him and others. Although all humanity has sinned, I believe God intends to transform us into people who genuinely reflect His holiness, righteousness, and love.

What might the Church become if we grew ever more fully into God's call to holiness and Christlikeness? How might the world be transformed through a Church increasingly characterized by the extraordinary love, courage, humility, and obedience of Jesus?

The Church is called not merely to proclaim Jesus, but to follow his Way and become like him.

A Final Note on Overstreet

Overstreet’s essay raises several related concerns that helped sharpen my thinking: whether inherited-corruption models fit Scripture’s continuing language about the image of God, how such models relate to Jesus’ genuine humanity, whether they can lower expectations for sanctification, and how inherited guilt relates to personal moral responsibility (Overstreet, n.d.). I do not adopt every formulation or rhetorical flourish in his essay, but I am grateful for the questions it prompted. The arguments in this article are my own assessment of Scripture and should stand or fall on the biblical case itself.

Summary

I believe human beings are created in the image and likeness of God, not with an inherently sinful or morally corrupt nature. Scripture never explicitly states that humanity inherits from Adam a sinful nature that makes sin morally unavoidable. Sin is not part of human nature as God originally designed it; rather, sin is contrary to that nature. God created humanity as “very good,” in His own image, with the capacity to choose what is good or evil.

Human beings possess a God-given conscience and the ability to recognize moral truths (Romans 2:14–15). Although all humanity has sinned and fallen short of God's glory, I do not believe the universality of human sin proves that sin is morally unavoidable because of an inherited sinful nature. Humans become morally corrupt through their sinful choices; I do not believe they are born morally corrupt.

At the same time, the sins of others profoundly affect us. No one is born into a world untouched by wrongdoing, injustice, suffering, or the consequences of previous generations' choices. Other people's actions can make choosing what is good much more difficult. Conversely, the righteousness, love, and faithfulness of others can positively influence our lives.

It is important, however, to distinguish inheriting the consequences of another person's sin from inheriting personal guilt for that sin. Scripture repeatedly emphasizes individual moral responsibility (Ezekiel 18:20; Deuteronomy 24:16). I believe God's perfect justice requires that people be held morally accountable for their own wrongdoing. Although Christian traditions differ in how they understand inherited guilt and corruption, I find inherited personal guilt difficult to reconcile with God's justice, and I do not believe the biblical evidence establishes an inherently corrupt human nature.

Nevertheless, becoming fully righteous and holy is not something human beings can accomplish independently of God. We need His grace, guidance, correction, and the transforming power of the Holy Spirit. God does not merely command holiness; He provides the help necessary for His people to grow in holiness.

Jesus himself demonstrates the extraordinary possibilities of a genuinely human life devoted to God. I believe he underwent real moral development, learned obedience through suffering, overcame sin, and became extraordinarily righteous and holy through his dependence upon God and the power of the Holy Spirit. He ultimately offered himself to God without blemish (Hebrews 9:14).

Jesus is our example, our Lord, and the one through whom God brings salvation. His life demonstrates what God can accomplish in a human being, and Scripture promises that God intends to conform His children to Christ's image (Romans 8:29).

I believe all who follow Christ can, through God's grace, the power of the Holy Spirit, and a life of learning obedience, become fully holy and conformed to his image.

All things are possible with God!